Strategies for a "Geographic Information / Spatial Concepts" course
This is a foundational class for any GIS, GIScience or Cartography curriculum, covering basics on representation of geographic information and spatial concepts shared in common by cartography, GIS, GPS, and remote sensing. It also provides GIS awareness for undeclared freshmen/sophomores or professionals coming from other disciplines interested in GIS. There are a variety of names for this type of course: "Maps and Map Use", "Digital Techniques in Geography", "Concepts of Spatial Thinking" and "Mapping Our Changing World". Penn State permits this course to be used as one of the University requirements for social sciences. The difference between this course and a Cartography course is that it focuses on map concepts and maps use rather than map production.

Strategies for an "Introduction to GIS" course
This is the most common type of GIS-related course offered at universities and colleges. It may or may not require a prerequisite in mapping or computer cartography. "Introduction to GIS" courses that do not require a prerequisite have to cover basic map concepts, allowing less time to be devoted to spatial data structures/models, spatial analysis, examples of applications, and GIS project design/implementation. These topics can be treated in greater depth and breadth if this course requires a prerequisite in spatial concepts. One of the learning outcomes of this type This type of course typically requires students to gain some level of familarity (but not competency) in the use of a GIS or desktop mapping software package.

Strategies for an "Advanced GIS: issues and applications" course
This course may either provide a broad overview of different GIS applications, or a more in-depth look at issues related to GIS such as implementation, modeling, decision making, related technologies, and societal issues. Typical names include "Advanced Issues in GIS", "GIS Applications", "Environmental Application of GIS", "Design and Implementation of GIS" and "GIS and Society". This course offers the most potential for integrating metadata in depth as opposed to opportunities for breadth in the previous two courses. In exercises, discussions and projects, students should be required to use (and even create) metadata as well as address issues directly and indirectly related to metadata ("knowledge" learning objectives).

Strategies for an "Advanced GIS: spatial analysis" course
This course may either provide an in-depth look at GIS analysis functions, including statistical techniques, or an in-depth look at GIS algorithms, data models, or database implementations. This course leans more towards a computer science or statistics perspective on GIS, and is an important advanced element of a GIScience curriculum. Example of course names: "Spatial Analysis with GIS", "Technical Issues in GIS", "Geoprocessing", and "GIScience II".

Strategies for an "Advanced GIS: software-specific" course
This type of course is becoming somewhat out-dated, as GIS software is becoming easier to learn and short 2-5 days courses are becoming increasingly popular for training in the use of GIS software. Traditionally, this course has been a follow-up to a concept course such as "Introduction to GIS" in order to give students training to make them professionally competitive. Though this course does provide students with additional knowledge of GIS functions and procedures that can only be dealt with superficially at an introductory course level, other courses dealing specifically with spatial analysis, applications or issues related to GIS may be considered true "advanced GIS" courses. Opportunity for integrating metadata in this type of class is greatest within laboratory exercises and final projects, requiring students to explore the data they are using instead of just issuing GIS commands to manipulate data.

Strategies for courses in related disciplines using GIS for applications
Other disciplines that typically utilize GIS include Urban and Regional Planning, Forestry/Natural Resource Management, Civil Engineering, Geology and Business/Marketing. Increasingly, GIS is becoming integrated into courses offered by these departments to increase students' awareness of GIS without requiring them to take a full-fledged GIS course (typically offered by a Geography Department). Teaching GIS within departmental courses also allows a greater focus on applications and issues relating to the specific discipline. Opportunities for integrating metadata in this type of course are similar to a "Introduction to GIS" course, though the same topics may be dealt with more superficially in this course. However, because of the practical need for GIS as a tool within these disciplines, the usefulness of metadata may receive more notice in this type of course than in a course that deals more with theories and concepts.

Strategies for "Introduction to Cartography" courses
This category traditionally includes "Computer Cartography" or "Computer Mapping" with an emphasis on map creation and design and little if any attention to spatial analysis. There are also several instances of courses related to Web-based mapping that may fall closer to this category rather than true GIS classes. Integration of metadata falls within a narrow category of topics relating to projections, scale, data sources and data quality. It is worth noting that maps also have their own metadata in the form of legends, scalebars, projection information and reliability diagrams.

Strategies for "Introduction to Remote Sensing" courses
While this course focuses primarily on remote sensing concepts, platforms, and image processing, a topic on integrating remote sensing with GIS is usually included, as in the University of Maryland's Remote Sensing Core Curriculum. Metadata can be stressed in this type of class as a means for describing different properties of images, processing steps, and quality issues.

Strategies for "Global Positioning Systems" courses
There are few instances of full-length university courses devoted entirely to GPS. Usually GPS is included as topic within a mapping, GIS, or civil engineering course. GPS techniques are also increasingly being offered as short professional courses. Integration of metadata can be accomplished through discussion of accuracy issues, mission planning, and integration with other data sources.

Strategies for Short Courses or Professional Courses:
Many universities have computer centers or extended learning centers that offer technical short courses for training in specific software, and as desktop GIS software has become more prevalent these centers are also offering courses for professionals seeking to expand their skills base. Courses typically range from half day to three days in length. Most short course programs provide only software training such as "Introduction to ArcView", "Advanced ArcView", and "Introduction to GPS". Because of the brevity of these courses, there is little opportunity to deal with metadata except at a very superficial level. Nevertheless, even a brief ten minute to half-hour introduction to What is metadata and Why is metadata important is worthwhile. Many of these courses also include use of the World Wide Web, opening up additional opportunities to discuss finding and evaluating data. In addition, some programs are expanding to include more concept-based short courses such as "Introduction to GIS", "Integrating Public Data", "Data Sources and Conversion", "Managing a GIS project", "Managing GIS Datasets", and "Metadata and Quality Control".

Learning outcomes are organized by five parameters adopted from Heywood, D.I. and J.R. Petch, 1991: Conviction, Motivation, Skills, Knowledge, and Experience. These five parameters are considered to be basic to successful implementation of a new technology within a business paradigm. For instance, educating/training for skills alone does not ensure effective implementation, since metadata, like GIS itself, is more than a software program but is a whole philosophy of how to approach tasks.

Starting with basic conviction of the effectiveness of metadata, these learning outcomes are based on topical units which may be covered individually, sequentially, or selectively according to the desired learning outcomes. General managers will usually only cover topics at the Conviction and Motivation levels; data managers or clearinghouse managers should also cover topics at the Knowledge level, though they may skip the Skills level. For technicians or analysts desiring to obtain specific skills, recommended topics include those covered in the Conviction and Motivation levels. Suggested topics are also included from the Knowledge level to provide additional breadth and depth. However, topics from the Knowledge level are not necessary to successfully acquire the desired skills.

Conviction

• Conviction of effectiveness of metadata: how it can improve quality and/or quantity of product, process or project

• Motivation to use metadata: an understanding of techniques for using it and where it is applicable
• Motivation to implement metadata: who creates it, amount of time required to create it, necessary background knowledge to do a good job

• Ability to read metadata: knowing where to find specific information
• Ability to use metadata search protocol to locate data
• Ability to evaluate a data set's fitness-for-use using metadata

Advanced Skills:

• Ability to create metadata
• Ability to format metadata for compliance to the standard
• Ability to set up and maintain a data clearinghouse with metadata

• Issues associated with content standards
• Difficulties related to metadata implementation
• Understanding of how the NSDI fosters more efficient use, management, and production of geospatial data
• Knowledge of data granularity: feature level, data set level, and series level metadata (under development)
• Metadata applies to much more than spatial data
• Data Quality issues
• Awareness of the integral part metadata plays in clearinghouse and digital library efforts
• Understanding of the impact of technology and information overload on society: how metadata can help
• Importance of visualization and communication of metadata
• How structured metadata can help implement decision-support technologies
• Importance of standards: metadata and software standards for supporting interoperability
• Official and informal mandates for metadata
• Knowledge of how metadata relates to trends in GIS industry and science

Experience